Antunes JLF, Toporcov TN, Biazevic MGH, Boing AF, Scully C, Petti S. Alcohol drinking effect and oral cancer: independent or joint effect with smoking? Large case-control study. Public Library Of Science (PLoS One). 2013; 8:(7) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068132
Boffetta P, Hecht S, Gray N Smokeless tobacco and cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2008; 9:(7)667-675
Conway DI, Hashibe M, Boffetta P, Wunsch-Filho V, Muscat J, La Vecchia C, Winn DM. Enhancing epidemiologic research on head and neck cancer: INHANCE – The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology consortium. Oral Oncol. 2009; 45:(9)743-746 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2009.02.007
Delnevo CD, Pevzner ES, Hrywna M, Lewis MJ. Bidi cigarette use among young adults in 15 states. Prevent Med. 2004; 39:207-211
Ferreira Antunes JL, Toporcov TN, Biazevic MG, Boing AF, Scully C, Petti S. Joint and independent effects of alcohol drinking and tobacco smoking on oral cancer: a large case-control study. PLoS One. 2013; 8:(7) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068132
Gandini S, Botteri E, Iodice S Tobacco smoking and cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 2008; 122:(1)155-164
Hassonah Y, Scully C. Dokha: an emerging smoking habit with possible oral effects. Oral Dis. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.12324
Lee YC, Marron M, Benhamou S Active and involuntary tobacco smoking and upper aerodigestive tract cancer risks in a multicenter case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009; 18:(12)3353-3361
Lin WJ, Jiang RS, Wu SH Smoking, alcohol, and betel quid and oral cancer: a prospective cohort study. J Oncol. 2011; 2011
Malson JL, Lee EM, Murty R, Moolchan ET, Pickworth WB. Clove cigarette smoking: biochemical, physiological, and subjective effects. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003; 74:739-745
Marron M, Boffetta P, Zhang ZF Cessation of alcohol drinking, tobacco smoking and the reversal of head and neck cancer risk. Int J Epidemiol. 2010; 39:(1)182-196
Parkin DM, Boyd L, Walker LC. 16. The fraction of cancer attributable to lifestyle and environmental factors in the UK in 2010. Br J Cancer. 2011; 105:(S2)S77-S81
Parkin DM. Tobacco-attributable cancer burden in the UK in 2010. Br J Cancer. 2011; 105:(S2)S6-S13
Petti S, Masood M, Messano GA, Scully C. Alcohol is not a risk factor for oral cancer in nonsmoking, betel quid non-chewing individuals. A meta-analysis update. Annls Hyg. 2013; 25:(1)3-14 https://doi.org/10.7416/ai.2013.1901
Petti S, Scully C. Determinants of oral cancer at the national level: just a question of smoking and alcohol drinking prevalence?. Odontology. 2010; 98:144-152
Hassona Y, Scully C, Abu Ghosh M, Khoury Z, Jarrar S, Sawair F. Mouth cancer awareness and beliefs among dental patients. Int Dent J. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1111/idj.12140
Rahman M, Fukui T. Bidi smoking and health. Public Hlth. 2000; 114:123-127
Rahman M, Sakamoto J, Fukui T. Bidi smoking and oral cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 2003; 106:600-604
Scully C, Petti S. Overview of cancer for the healthcare team; aetiopathogenesis and early diagnosis. Oral Oncol. 2010; 46:402-406
Shah SB, Chestnutt IG, Lewis MAO. ‘Hubble-bubble leads to trouble’ – waterpipe smoking and oral health. Dent Update. 2013; 40:800-804
Warnakulasuriya S, Scully C. Cancer of the mouth for the dental team; comprehending the condition, causes, controversies, control and consequences: 2. Main risk factors and epidemiology. Dent Update. 2010; 37:710-712
Watson CH, Polzin GM, Calafat AM, Ashley DL. Determination of the tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide yields in the smoke of bidi cigarettes. Nicot Tobac Res. 2003; 5:(5)747-753
Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006
Wyss A, Hashibe M, Chuang SC, Lee YC, Zhang ZF, Yu GP Cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoking and the risk of head and neck cancers: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Am J Epidemiol. 2013; 178:(5)679-690 https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt029
Yen KL, Hechavarria E, Bostwick SB. Bidi cigarettes: an emerging threat to adolescent health. Archiv Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000; 154:1187-1189
Znaor A, Brennan P, Gajalakshmi V Independent and combined effects of tobacco smoking, chewing and alcohol drinking on the risk of oral, pharyngeal and esophageal cancers in Indian men. Int J Cancer. 2003; 105:(5)681-686
A MEDLINE search early in 2015 revealed more than 250,000 papers on head and neck cancer; over 100,000 on oral cancer; and over 60,000 on mouth cancer. Not all publications contain robust evidence. We endeavour to encapsulate the most important of the latest information and advances now employed in practice, in a form comprehensible to healthcare workers, patients and their carers. This series offers the primary care dental team, in particular, an overview of the aetiopathogenesis, prevention, diagnosis and multidisciplinary care of mouth cancer, the functional and psychosocial implications, and minimization of the impact on the quality of life of patient and family.
CPD/Clinical Relevance: This article offers the dental team an overview of the main cancer risk factors, tobacco and alcohol, betel and other chewing habits, and environmental factors.
Article
Mouth cancer arises out of DNA mutations (Article 1) which can affect various genes and are increased by various risk factors. The main known definitive risk factors for mouth cancer are using tobacco and drinking alcohol: it is thought that about 3 out of 4 head and neck cancers (75%) are linked to these habits (Figure 1). Other risk factors include betel use and similar chewing habits (Article 4). Radiation (eg sunlight, ionizing), which is implicated in lip cancer, and infection with the virus human papillomavirus (HPV), which plays a role in oropharyngeal cancer, are discussed in Article 5. This article discusses tobacco.
The cause of cancer in most people is unclear but risk depends on a combination of genes, environment and aspects of living (Figure 2).
Anything that increases DNA mutations increases a person's chances of developing cancer and is called a ‘cancer risk factor’. A risk factor is something that increases the chances of developing cancer, but having a risk factor for cancer does not mean necessarily that cancer will develop: some people with risk factors never develop cancer, and yet other people without known risk factors can still develop cancer. It is impossible to control fundamental mouth cancer risk factors such as gender and age.
Register now to continue reading
Thank you for visiting Dental Update and reading some of our resources. To read more, please register today. You’ll enjoy the following great benefits:
